THE UNCHANGING FEATURES OF FIXED DEFENCES

We are primarily interested in fixed coastal fortifications, although land forts and batteries are of interest as part of the landward defences of harbours and ports. With odd exceptions, the primary features of fixed defences changed little through history.

Offensive:

Weapons to engage enemy troops and vessels. This was primarily guns, smoothbore until about 1850. Thereafter rifled guns appeared in considerable numbers. Breach loading rifled weapons also appeared about 1885 and these guns had replaced all the other models by 1900.

Defensive:

Protection for these guns, including the use of bombproof or casemated positions, sometimes with armoured shields or turrets.
Prepared fields of fire and range finding equipment to ensure that the enemy could be hit.
Protection for the garrison, casemated and defensible barracks.
Obstacles to impede any enemy attack. In this case of naval vessels this including torpedoes (Brennan, Whitehead), mines and boom defences. To protect from infantry attack, ditches, caponiers and prepared firing positions.

Logistics:

This required within the fortification, secure storage for:

Ammunition, and if possible, a safe distribution method with underground corridors and lifts to the guns.
Water including reservoirs and water catchments.
Food supplies for any siege.
Medical facilities, including adequate hospital accommodation. These were particularly important in the unhealthier posts such as Sierra Leone.
Coal and later oil to run steam engines to power the large guns and general electrics.

Between 1840 and 1914 the development of British fortifications was profoundly influenced by development including the introduction of the following:

rifled artillery

breach loading guns

machine guns (Gatling)

standardisation

steam power

electricity

smokeless propellants

position finding instruments

British Fortifications

The British saw the introduction of gunpowder artillery in about 1440 and this resulted in some five hundred years of development in fortifications and artillery pieces. This can be split into five basic historical periods as outlined below. Some of the most significant early European developments in artillery took place as a result of the wars with the Ottoman Turks.

Phase I – POST MEDIEVAL

1440 to 1550 when most guns were forged iron and generally of smaller calibre. At this time fortifications still had high walls and rounded towers. Changes were taking place, including specific loopholes so that handguns could be fired from inside the fortification.

Between 1539 and 1547, Henry VIII had a chain of artillery fortifications built along the south coast of England and Wales. This was the first organised artillery fortifications built for coastal defence built in Britain and included for example, Deal Castle and Calshot Castle.

However, by the 17th and 18th Centuries a more simple coastal defence battery had been developed. The most common type of coastal defence was a simple battery with six or less gun on a stone gun platform, often fan shaped. The guns were either behind a parapet, or firing through embrasures, with or without a moat and defensive wall. These simple batteries were replicated in many overseas locations, particularly the Caribbean.

Fort Albert on the Isle of Wight was built between 1852 and 1856 and was one of the last old style gun towers to be built. Similar towers were built in Milford Haven including Stack Rock. For photographs of some earlier artillery fortifications Click here.

Phase 2 – BASTION FORTIFICATIONS

1550 to 1850 with guns now largely of cast iron. Standardisation was starting to take place making guns more efficient. Effective ranges of engagement about 300 metres. Walls are now sunk into the ground with numerous outer works to protect them from artillery fire. Fortification building now a science with intricate outworks, counter mining, and concealed defensive features. For photographs of some bastion fortifications Click here.

Phase 3 – POLYGONAL FORTICATIONS

This period saw the introduction of polygonal shaped fortifications with caponiers used to provide flanking fire for local defence. This was sometimes called the Prussian system because it was based on the German designe. However, the British had already been experimenting with polytonal fortifications and one theory is that they were encouraged by Fort Tigne in Malta.

Between 1850 to 1900 we see the replacement of the old muzzle loading smooth bore artillery with rifled artillery pieces. Initially the smoothbore guns were replaced with muzzle loading (Rifle Muzzle Loader) but by 1885 breech loading artillery was gaining popularity. The effective range of artillery increased initially to some 3,000 metres and by the end of this period to over 10,000 metres. Fortifications were now multi facing, and increasingly dispersed, with many features underground to make them ‘bombproof’. In 1885 the British adopted the Twydall Profile which heralded the arrive of the Dispersal Period. For some examples of Polygonal fortifications Click here

Phase 4 – DISPERSED FORTICATIONS

This period from 1900 to 1950 was dominated by high velocity breech loading guns that could engage targets effectively up to 30,000 metres. Aircraft become a significant factor in warfare. Fortifications are now dispersed and terrain is used to help concealment. Barbed wire, artillery and the machine guns dominate. for photographs of dispersed fortifications Click here.

Phase 5 – NUCLEAR

The introduction of the guided missile and nuclear weapons sees the demise of fixed place artillery. Artillery is now mobile and air delivered ordinance becomes paramount. Fortifications are further dispersed and buried underground for protection. All command and control is now buried deep underground and mobility is regarded as a key to survival for surface units on a nuclear battlefield. For photographs of typical nuclear defences Click here.